Definition on Love Essay Example for Free

Definition on Love Essay A definition essay on love strives to define it as an emotion felt and displayed by humans, animals, and all living beings in their own way. It is a topic that has been written about through the ages and has found its way into books on literature and religion. Love knows no bounds and language is never a barrier. Wars have been fought over it. People have been and are still influenced by the emotion of love. Some of the best literary works are based on love, and even movie makers bank on it to win over viewers and create a hit. Love can be expressed in many ways. God has shown his love for us by offering us the emotion to share with others. In return, we love God for all the wonderful things he has given us. Our devotion towards God demonstrates love in the form of reverence. The love formed out of respect is the same love we have for our elders, family, and people we look up to. In a love essay, you could elaborate on love that one has for his family. It could be connected with religion, respect, or pure love not based on any conditions. A Romeo and Juliet essay is the ideal love story between man and woman. The word â€Å"romance† has been used in many ways to show love and affection between Romeo and Juliet. In modern society, people who are romantically attracted exhibit their love for each other with the help of cards, gifts, and words of love. The way love is expressed changes materially but the emotion remains the same. Couples find love in sex, affection for each other, and by communicating with each other more frequently. In fact, mankind has evolved through love between Adam and Eve. When you have to write a definition essay on love, aim to write a drama essay that incorporates love as its theme. It would generate interest among readers, and you would find many definition essay examples to choose from. The best way to write such an essay would be to look up dialogues from literary works of famous authors like William Shakespeare. Dialogues are the true expression of love that is exhibited through words. The best part is that you can refer to literary works written through the ages and get inspiration from the one you like the most. There are several other definition essay topics you can choose. It basically depends on the audience you want to write for. The topics could be on relationships in the family. You could write about the love between brothers and sisters. How different is a father’s love for his children from a mother’s love? You need to be old enough to really understand romantic love between two people, which is very intimate and sexual in nature. The aim of your essay differs with age. Choose more complex topics on love as you grow older. The emotion of love is progressive. You would be in a better position to write about love in its various manifestations when you personally experience it. The definition essay on love would truly carry your personal point of view, which of course would make writing the essay very easy.

The Challenges Of Protecting Personal Information Information Technology Essay

The Challenges Of Protecting Personal Information Information Technology Essay The aim of this paper is to review the importance of personal data, also known as sensitive data that are actually used virtually by any organisation in this 21st century. Personal information has become the biggest issue around the world, either processing or protecting it. But, in this article, the focus is on the health care system which is the Electric Health Record system (EHR), it is a system use to record health information electronically. Having the legislation, rules and regulation in place, it is found that this system has failed to provide protection on personal data. As a matter of fact, this system has managed to be exploited by unauthorised people. The EHR system was not fully tested accordingly to meet the end-users requirement, but released to the health service for use. The growth of data loss is increasingly common among the organisations in day to life and challenges in protecting personal data have emerged. It is therefore essential that health care service establ ish a better security policy to protect the personal data. This research paper will explain the security issues need to be enforced in order to protect data from the vulnerabilities. 1. INTRODUCTION One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is the security of data. It has become a central issue for many organisations to achieve a successful information system within defined scope, quality, time and cost constraints in order to protect privacy, confidentiality and security. Researchers like Olvingson et al. (2003) suggest that there have been drastic changes in the provision of health services since the introduction of computers about three decades ago and issues related to the protection of personal health information have resulted in both technical research and political debate.[1] Thus, it can be justified that security of data is still the leading cause of failure in software system development. The main issues addressed in this paper are personal information, data protection and security. It has been divided into four parts. The first one deals with the explanation of personal data, data protection and disclosure of data. The second part is to evaluate the risks and the impact on information system. The third one is to present different approaches to counter these risks. The forth one is to provide a summary of findings that can be use as lessons in the future. The purpose of this paper is to review the latest years of research into these parts and critically evaluate and validate this case study. 1.1 What is personal data? Personal data can be classified into three main categories; these are contact, profile and behavioural information. It contains the detail information of a living person that is unique to each individual. In this scenario, the personal data reveals the information of individuals health such as name, racial origin ,blood group, sex, DNA, contact details, next of kin, illnesses, treatment and General Practitioners detail. Therefore, EHR system functions at its best to record and transmit this information throughout the health service organisations. But, the biggest challenge of this system is to protect the privacy of patients health information. The main question addressed in this paper is how to protect this sensitive data. According to Croll.P.R (2010), he discusses that the effectiveness of Privacy and security measures depend mostly on the policies adopted by the healthcare organisation.[2] It can be argued that research shows that there is inadequate policies enforce by the gover nment and the medical organisation to prevent further harm on personal data. It can just be suggested that future research should determine how to address these issues effectively and generate effective security policies in IS project development 1.2 Data Protection Act is a legislation that has been established since 1984 and replaced in 1998, it is an Act to protect personal data. The principles of this Act are to make sure that data is accurate and correct. Information should be fairly and lawfully processed. Personal data should not be kept longer than necessary and processed for limited purposes. It should be adequate, relevant and up to date. The most important ones are not to reveal personal data in any manner and should be secure. Personal data should be processed in accordance with the data subjects rights. This Data Act also emphasizes on the accessibility of data, that is to say who is allowed to access to the data and under what conditions. Liability is crucial because it is about who is responsible if the data is abused. Haasa S. et al (2010), they argue that even if the providers policy states that data protection regulations and legislation are met, patients cannot control the EHR providers usage of their data. [3] Thus, it can be discussed that EHR system is not a single medical institution anymore and it is run by other enterprises who maintain the electronic records system where they have access to the personal data and able to disclose private information to other third parties. According to this article, the National Health Information Network (NHIN) and Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) cannot guarantee the security of health records because they are not sure people working within the medical organisation will abide by the rule. 1.3 Disclosure of Data is the revelation of data; it can be either wanted or unwanted disclosure. This means that one can either reveal the personal data to the authorised party or to the third party that could be unauthorised without any conditions. But, this paper focuses on the risks that are associated with the data that is disclosed inappropriately. Researchers have found that the in-house sabotage is the leading cause of sharing information to the third parties. It is the most common risk factor that has been identified by recent studies so far. An example of this potential risk of harvesting personal data for commercial purposes is the CAMM scam in Australia, 2003. It is a company promoting pharmaceutical activities and manages to upload the EHR system where they extract the personal data with some doctors approval. [4] Later, it was found that CAMM did not just use it for the pharmaceutical purposes, but also sold it to many insurance companies and to other organisations that wanted to buy the data. Hence, it can be argued that this can cause significant threats to patients privacy. Concerns have been raised by several bodies about the poor regulatory structures and policies implementing by the government in protecting personal data. The other associated risks are hackers, natural disaster, terrorism and viruses. According to the case study, the fact and figures shows that 99% were the staff that had the opportunity to target the system and 88% of the organisations had lost money between 500 dollars to 10 millions of dollars.[5] The most surprising fact is when staff leaves the organisation, they are the one who become the attackers of the company. Security breaches mostly when there is lack of access control which leads to information technology sabotage. Angus N (2005) argues that if it is for the benefit of the patient, information can be shared within the multidisciplinary team caring for the patient and does not apply to research, teaching or other unqualified members.[6] Thus, it can be justified that information should only be disclosed appropriately and safely to the people required or authorised by the legislation and hence this will improve the security issues. 2. Evaluation of the risks and impact on information systems This part of the discussion is about the evaluation of the risks listed above and the impact on information systems in terms of storage, transport, access management and disclosure are as follows: Storage -The idea of the freedom people working anywhere has in fact increase the ability to carry data on portable hard drives, laptops and USB sticks. Recent report has confirmed that data leakage have become very common among the organisations and has great impact on the relationship to customer due to the loss of laptops and USB. For example the case of the PA consulting who transferred the personal data of 84,000 prisoners in England and Wales to a memory sticks that gone missing. [7] This was a total disaster in terms of money loss and identity frauds. There is increasing concern of shopping on line because of security which is the major perception whether to buy or not to on line. Recent developments in using credit cards have heightened the need for better security policy to protect personal bank details from hackers. Transport -The crucial thing is when electronic data is carrying insecurely in public domain and from one domain to another. That has an inverse impact on infor mation systems such as people will lose confidence in using the system. Economically speaking, the risks to organisations have grown immensely where consumers and businesses suffer from loss of availability, integrity and confidentiality. If any of these is loss either accidentally or deliberately, this will affect the organisations productivity, popularity and much more. According to this case study, the health service system is more networked and that lead to an increase of intrusion and malware. The statistic research shows that health care companies in United States had an average of 13,400 attacks per day at the end of 2009, according to the Secure Works where some of these attacks are hacking credit card and others are automated attacks from malware which infect computers via networks and USB sticks. [8] In UK, late 2009, there were three London Hospitals that were forced to shut down their computer networks due to the infected malware known as Mytob. [9] It can be argued that has an adverse impact on NHS because 4,700 computers were infected and it took about two weeks to eliminate the virus which was cost-effective and data loss.[10] These attacks can also result in wrong diagnosis of patients and even cause death if the patients information have been erased or mislead by the malicious attack. Access Management is about the authentication process which deals with the authorization of user sID and password to have access to the data. Concerns have been raised by several bodies about the poor password management. This means that passwordword is not changed regularly and has the same default fixed password which in turn makes the system vulnerable to most attacks. In fact, this scenario states that the user do not need to have administrator access to do serious damage to the health records. McSherry (2004) suggests that with the growing effectiveness of data retrieval engines and data mining techniques, personal data has become vulnerable to unauthorised people. [11] It can be argued that data kept electronically makes it easier to exploit by data thieves and other intruders. Disclosure this explains to whom information should be disclosed to, that is to say who is liable to receive this information and on what conditions. The employees have a key role to play regarding this because whether they are liable under the Data Protection Act, company rules and regulation or not. But in most cases as mentioned above, it is found that mostly the staff that breaches the contract while dealing with personal information. 3. Controls and countermeasures Presentation of different approaches will be discussed in this part of the paper to counter these risks listed above. Recent developments in the field of security issues have led to a renewed interest in encryption. Encryption is the process of converting information into codes. It is in the form of computer programs software used to secure data. That is to say, a sender enters his / her personal data, it is first get encrypted and then decrypted before it reach to the receiver. It is one of the best solutions to all of these potential threats. Encryption is distinguished to protect communications and secure data effectively and safely, thus it can be justified that encryption should be enforced by the organisations internally and externally. This also applies on mobile devices, such as mobile phones and laptops where data are stored. Good and effective password management policy should be implemented at workplace. As a matter fact, authentication is the key factor of security issues , thus it is important to have strong methods, for example change password regularly and change the default. Staff should not bypass password in any manner. Education and training regarding data protection should be continuously adhered to employees. Public key infrastructure should be implemented as it provides a means to generate, administer and revoke digital certificate. It works similar to personal IDs, public key provides authentication where as the private key provides confidentiality. Therefore, encryption should be critically put in force when data is transmitted from one place to another, for passwords to limit unauthorised access and while storing data in databases and files. Firewall and other anti -virus software are also countermeasures that are needed to deploy by organisation to protect, detect and remove virus infection. However, a major problem with this kind of application is organisation often focus on security issues and forget the safety issues when it comes to the rules and regulations, thus medical system should emphasise on safety measures. Standards need to be followed to enable security protection. It is important that information is disclosed appropriately and safely to the required people on conditions. Some other measures that need to be considered are check has to be made with Internet Service Provider whether personal details are protected and shopping online should take place only through secure server which is https and not http. It is important to delete the browsing details after the transactions are completed and that helps protecting the online privacy. The most important one is for staff to abide by the rules and regulation in the organisation to successfully protect the personal data. However, Guarda P and Zannone N (2009), they suggest that it is difficult for an organisation to assure data subjects about the correct execution of data processing. [12] It can thus be argued that data processing is a very delicate activit y which need better assurance policy. According to the case study, an automated security testing tool was used in OpenEMR application and discovered about 400 vulnerabilities. Implementation bugs are code-level security problems. [13]. It was found that EHRs did not manage to keep up with discretion of patients records. An SQL injection attack was performed in OpenEMR and enabled to log in as the Front Office user without administravives authorization. Using this technique, it is established that any table in the database could be exploited, but the Proprietary Med application was safe. A Cross-site scripting attack is when malicious script is entered into the webpage. It was also successful and managed to exploit six in each application. It can thus be justified that the best way to test web application is to have the cross-site script applied correctly. Cookies- are small text files contain information such as username, start page, user preferences and contents of a shopping cart, they are use to analyse the user and support junk mail.

Affirmative Action Is the Wrong Action Essay -- Argumentative Persuasi

Affirmative Action Is the Wrong Action The United States of America has long been a country divided by race. Hate has pervaded her existence since her conception, and now today’s society is forced to deal with those issues. Minorities have suffered at the hands of the white male majority for centuries as the social activities of the old war were brought to the new colonies, only to ferment and continue to affect the lives of all who lived within her borders. There is no doubting that this continued discrimination is a problem; however, the question arises with how to deal with it. Legislation has been passed to remedy the situation, yet has been seemingly ineffective. Affirmative action has caused problems without fulfilling its purpose. The downfall of affirmative action is that it is the wrong action; the United States society has problems, including an underlying tension of hate, but they cannot be fixed by the government’s laws; they will be fixed when society changes how it views its members. Affirmative action was put into affect with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Eastland 22). The purposes of affirmative action are noble at best-in theory they would serve to end the discriminatory practices so rampant in the American society. The goals were to repair or negate the effects of past discrimination, move towards diversity in both the private and public sector, to encourage representation in the work force, and to increase the economic levels of both women and minorities (Doverspike 3). The outlined goals of affirmative action are what we need for this country. The United States society needs to change the way it sees and treats its citizens. The methods that affirmative action uses, however, are not conducive to ac... ...l Perspective. Vancouver: The Fraser Institute, 1982. Doverspike, Dennis, Mary Anne Taylor, and Winfried Arthur, Jr. Affirmative Action: A Psychological Perspective. Huntington: Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 2000. Eastland, Terry. Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice. New York: Harper Collins, 1996. Puddington, Arch. â€Å"Affirmative Actino Should Be Eliminated.† Affirmative Action. Ed. Bruno Leone. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1996. 70-83. Rosenfeld, Michel. Affirmative Action and Justice: A Philosophical and Constitutional Inquiry. New Haven: Yale. 1991. Skrentny, John David. The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Urofsky, Melvin I. Affirmative Action on Trial: Sex Discrimination in Johnson v. Santa. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997.

The Portrayal of Women in American Literature Essay -- Papers Essays

The Portrayal of Women in American Literature Throughout American Literature, women have been depicted in many different ways. The portrayal of women in American Literature is often influenced by an author's personal experience or a frequent societal stereotype of women and their position. Often times, male authors interpret society’s views of women in a completely different nature than a female author would. While F. Scott Fitzgerald may represent his main female character as a victim in the 1920’s, Zora Neale Hurston portrays hers as a strong, free-spirited, and independent woman only a decade later in the 1930’s. In F. Scott Fitzgerald's, The Great Gatsby, the main female character, Daisy Buchanan, is portrayed by, Nick, the narrator, only by her superficial qualities. â€Å"Guided only by Nick’s limited view of her, readers often judge Daisy solely on the basis of her superficial qualities† (Fryer 43). What the reader sees through the eyes of Nick only appears as a woman whose impatience and desire for wealth and luxury cost her the love of her life, Gatsby. Nick’s narrow perception does not allow one to see that â€Å"†¦[Daisy’s] silly manner conceals a woman of feeling or that her final ‘irresponsibility’ towards Gatsby stems from an acute sense of responsibility towards herself† and that Nick â€Å"†¦clearly does not understand what motivates her† (Fryer 43). One can easily view Daisy as a victim. Fitzgerald distinctly exposes Daisy’s need for stability, which, according to Fitzgerald or perhaps the mentality of the time period, can only be found in a man. â€Å"Her need for stability was immediate, and she attempted to satisfy that need through something tangible, something close at hand† (Fryer 51). This â€Å"need† that Fitzg... ...en as one. Bibliography: Works Cited Fryer, Sarah Beebe. Fitzgerald’s New Women: Harbingers of Change. Eds. Jackson R. Bryer, A. Walton Litz, and Linda Wagner. Studies in Modern Literature, No. 86. Ann Arbor, Michigan: U-M-I Research Press, 1988. 43, 51, 54-55. Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. The Indestructible Women in Faulker, Hemingway, and Steinbeck. Eds. A. Walton Litz, Thomas C. Moser, and Linda Wagner. Studies In Modern Literature, No. 45. Ann Arbor, Michigan: U-M-I Research Press, 1986. 57-58, 86-89. Goodman, Susan. Edith Wharton’s Women: Friends & Rivals. Hanover: University Press of New England, 1990. 72-75. Peters, Pearlie Mae Fisher. The Assertive Women in Zora Neale Hurston’s Fiction, Folklore, and Drama. Ed. Graham Russell Hodges. New York, New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1998. 132, 139, 141, 143.

Cloned Zoos Essay -- Research Paper Animals Cloning Papers

Cloned Zoos Imagine an earth where every animal lives within an enclosed area where all humankind can see them. Yet, within these enclosures are the only places humans can see these animals alive. Why? It is because the animals' habitats have been damaged and completely destroyed for the needs and usage of human kind. These enclosed areas are called Cloned Zoos: The Final Stronghold of the World's Biodiversity. These cloned zoos are full of cloned animals that have been brought back from the dead or from the edge of extinction. Humankind has come to a point where all life on earth is controlled by human hands and where without the help of humans no animals will survive. Can you imagine a world where this instance has become reality? Could humankind allow this atrocity to happen? Will they allow this atrocity to happen? Well, some scientists are trying to avert this tragedy from occurring by using cloning to preserve those animals that are endangered or rapidly approaching the brink of extinction. The technology for cloning is improving and some scientists are turning to this technology as a way to preserve the genes of species faced with extinction due to weak reproductive abilities or a population, which is split and unable to reach another population. A member of an endangered species can be cloned and reintroduced into the original or a distant and unreachable population. Another option is the member being cloned can be brought back to life after it has died in order that its genes are still part of the gene pool. An estimated one hundred species go extinct each and every day, which means that approximately 36,500 species would go extinct every year (British Broadcasting Corporation, 2003). This extinction trend coul... .... (October 2, 2003). http://www.noonanrusso.com/imedia/ikit/act2/html/faqs.html Tobin, Kate. CNN.com-Nature: First cloned endangered species dies 2 days after birth. January 12, 2001. 18 September 2003 http://www.cnn.com/2001/NATURE/01/12/cloned.gaur/ Weise, Elizabeth. USA Today: The crËme of the clone crop. September 28, 2003. 18 September 2003 http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2003-09-29-clone-table.htm Westphal, Sylvia Pagan. "So simple, almost anyone can do it." New Scientist. 17 August 2002: 16-17. Wright, Richard T. Biology: Through the Eyes of Faith. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1989. [1] The zona pellucida is "the extracellular matrix of the egg," (Campbell, Reece, Mitchell, 1999, p. 940), a protective layer of the egg. [2] "Fitness is a measure of potential success," (English 107), for a species within a given environment. Cloned Zoos Essay -- Research Paper Animals Cloning Papers Cloned Zoos Imagine an earth where every animal lives within an enclosed area where all humankind can see them. Yet, within these enclosures are the only places humans can see these animals alive. Why? It is because the animals' habitats have been damaged and completely destroyed for the needs and usage of human kind. These enclosed areas are called Cloned Zoos: The Final Stronghold of the World's Biodiversity. These cloned zoos are full of cloned animals that have been brought back from the dead or from the edge of extinction. Humankind has come to a point where all life on earth is controlled by human hands and where without the help of humans no animals will survive. Can you imagine a world where this instance has become reality? Could humankind allow this atrocity to happen? Will they allow this atrocity to happen? Well, some scientists are trying to avert this tragedy from occurring by using cloning to preserve those animals that are endangered or rapidly approaching the brink of extinction. The technology for cloning is improving and some scientists are turning to this technology as a way to preserve the genes of species faced with extinction due to weak reproductive abilities or a population, which is split and unable to reach another population. A member of an endangered species can be cloned and reintroduced into the original or a distant and unreachable population. Another option is the member being cloned can be brought back to life after it has died in order that its genes are still part of the gene pool. An estimated one hundred species go extinct each and every day, which means that approximately 36,500 species would go extinct every year (British Broadcasting Corporation, 2003). This extinction trend coul... .... (October 2, 2003). http://www.noonanrusso.com/imedia/ikit/act2/html/faqs.html Tobin, Kate. CNN.com-Nature: First cloned endangered species dies 2 days after birth. January 12, 2001. 18 September 2003 http://www.cnn.com/2001/NATURE/01/12/cloned.gaur/ Weise, Elizabeth. USA Today: The crËme of the clone crop. September 28, 2003. 18 September 2003 http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2003-09-29-clone-table.htm Westphal, Sylvia Pagan. "So simple, almost anyone can do it." New Scientist. 17 August 2002: 16-17. Wright, Richard T. Biology: Through the Eyes of Faith. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1989. [1] The zona pellucida is "the extracellular matrix of the egg," (Campbell, Reece, Mitchell, 1999, p. 940), a protective layer of the egg. [2] "Fitness is a measure of potential success," (English 107), for a species within a given environment.

The Natural Approach Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language

THE NATURAL APPROACH Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition â€Å"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. † â€Å"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding. † â€Å"The best methods are therefore those that supply ‘comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear.These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are ‘ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production. † â€Å"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to hel p the acquirer understand are very helpful. † Introduction Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development.Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada. This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s.The Natural Approach (NA) is a product of Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at the University of Southern California and Tracy Terrell, a teacher of Spanish in California. Krashen's work on second language acquisition and Terrell's teaching experiences form the bases of the Natural Approach. The principles and practices of this new approach have been published in â€Å"The Natural Approach† (Krashen and Terrell, 1983). The book contains theoretical sections prepared by Krashen and sections on implementation and classroom procedures prepared mostly by Terrell. The most triking proposal of the NA theory is that adults can still acquire second languages and that the ability to ‘pick up' languages does not disappear at puberty. Thus, Krashen's contribution to Chomsky's LAD proposition is that adults follow the same principles of Universal Grammar. The theory behind the NA implies that adults can acquire all but the phonological aspect of any foreign language, by using their ever-active LAD. What makes adults different from children is their abstract problem solving skills that make them consciously process the grammar of a foreign language.Therefore, adults have two paths to follow: Acquisition and learning. However, children have only one: Ac quisition. In their book, Krashen and Terrell refer to their method of picking up ability in another language directly without instruction in its grammar as ‘the traditional approach'. They consider their approach as a traditional one whereas many methodologists consider Grammar Translation Method as the traditional method. For Krashen, even Grammar Translation Method is not as old and traditional as the method of acquiring a language in its natural environment, a method which has been used for hundreds of thousands of years.The term ‘natural' emphasizes that the principles behind the NA are believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful second language acquisition. One may think that the Natural Approach and the Natural Method are similar. The Natural Method (or the Direct Method) and the Natural Approach differ in that the former lays more emphasis on teacher monologues, formal questions and answers, and error correction. Krashen and Terrell not e that â€Å"the Natural Approach is in many ways the natural, direct method ‘rediscovered'[and] it is similar to other communicative approaches being developed today†.The Natural Approach, like TPR, is regarded as a comprehension-based approach because of its emphasis on initial delay(silent period) in the production of language. What is novel is that the NA focuses on exposure to input instead of grammar practice, and on emotional preparedness for acquisition to take place. II. THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE NATURAL APPROACH II. 1. Theory of Language Krashen regards ‘communication' as the main function of language. The focus is on teaching communicative abilities. The superiority of ‘meaning' is emphasized.Krashen and Terrell believe that a language is essentially its lexicon. They stress the importance of vocabulary and view language as a vehicle for ‘communicating meanings' and ‘messages'. According to Krashen, ‘acquisition' can take place on ly when people comprehend messages in the TL. Briefly, the view of language that the Natural Approach presents consists of ‘lexical items', ‘structures' and ‘messages'. The lexicon for both perception and production is considered critical in the organization and interpretation of messages.In Krashen's view, acquisition is the natural assimilation of language rules by using language for communication. This means that linguistic competence is achieved via ‘input' containing structures at the ‘interlanguage + 1' level (i +1); that is, via ‘comprehensible input'. II. 2. Theory of Language Learning (1) The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Krashen, in his theory of second language acquisition (SLA)suggested that adults have two different ways of developing competence in second languages: Acquisition and learning. â€Å"There are two independent ways of developing ability in second languages. Acquisition' is a subconscious process identical in all import ant ways to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language, †¦ [and] ‘learning' †¦ , [which is] a conscious process that results in ‘knowing about' [the rules of] language† (Krashen 1985:1). The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: ‘the acquired system' and ‘the learned system'.The ‘acquired system' or ‘acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The ‘learned system' or ‘learning' is the product of f ormal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge ‘about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.According to Krashen ‘learning' is less important than ‘acquisition'. Krashen believes that the result of learning, learned competence (LC) functions as a monitor or editor. That is, while AC is responsible for our fluent production of sentences, LC makes correction on these sentences either before or after their production. This kind of conscious grammar correction, ‘monitoring', occurs most typically in a grammar exam where the learner has enough time to focus on form and to make use of his conscious knowledge of grammar rules (LC) as an aid to ‘acquired competence'.The way to develop learned competence is fairly easy: analysing the grammar rules consciously and practising them through exercises. But what Acquisition / Learning Distinction Hypothesis predicts is that learning the grammar rules of a fo reign/second language does not result in subconscious acquisition. In other words, what you consciously learn does not necessarily become subconsciously acquired through conscious practice, grammar exercises and the like. Krashen formulates this idea in his well-known statement that â€Å"learning does not became acquisition†.It is at this point where Krashen receives major criticism. (2) The Natural Order Hypothesis According to the hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predicted progression. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition and there is a similar natural order in SLA. The average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as an ‘acquired' language is given below: -Ing——–Aux———Irregular——Regular Past Plural—–>Article—->Past———->3rd Sing.The implication of natura l order is not that second or foreign language teaching materials should be arranged in accordance with this sequence but that acquisition is subconscious and free from conscious intervention (Ellidokuzoglu, 1992). (3) The Input Hypothesis This hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning. Krashen claims that people acquire language best by understanding input that is a little beyond their present level of competence. Consequently, Krashen believes that ‘comprehensible input' (that is, i + 1) should be provided. The ‘input' should be relevant and ‘not grammatically sequenced'.The ‘input' should also be in sufficient quantity as Richards pointed out: â€Å".. child acquirers of a first language are provided with samples of ‘caretaker' speech, rough – tuned to their present level of understanding, .. [and] adult acquirers of a second language [should be] provided with simple codes that facilitate second language comprehension. † (Richa rds, J. 1986:133) (4) The Monitor Hypothesis As is mentioned, adult second language learners have two means for internalising the target language. The first is ‘acquisition' which is a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language.The second means is a conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules and are generally aware of their own process. The ‘monitor' is an aspect of this second process. It edits and make alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived. Krashen believes that ‘fluency' in second language performance is due to ‘what we have acquired', not ‘what we have learned': Adults should do as much acquiring as possible for the purpose of achieving communicative fluency. Therefore, the monitor should have only a minor role in the process of gaining communicative competence.Similarly, Krashen suggests three conditions for its use: (1) there must be enough time; (2) the foc us must be on form and not on meaning; (3) the learner must know the rule. (5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis The learner's emotional state, according to Krashen, is just like an adjustable filter which freely passes or hinders input necessary to acquisition. In other words, input must be achieved in low-anxiety contexts since acquirers with a low affective filter receive more input and interact with confidence. The filter is ‘affective' because there are some factors which regulate its strength.These factors are self-confidence, motivation and anxiety state. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION   Ã¢â‚¬â€œ   LANGUAGE LEARNING The expression â€Å"language learning† includes two clearly distinct, though rarely understood, concepts. One involves receiving information about the language, transforming it into knowledge through intellectual effort and storing it through memorization. The other involves developing the skill of interacting with foreigners to understand and speak their la nguage. The first concept is called â€Å"language learning,† while the other is referred to as â€Å"language acquisition. These are separate ideas and we will show that neither is the consequence of the other. The distinction between acquisition and learning is one of the hypotheses (the most important) established by the American Stephen Krashen in his highly regarded theory of foreign language learning. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Language acquisition refers to the process of natural assimilation, involving intuition and subconscious learning, which is the product of real interactions between people where the learner is an active participant.It is similar to the way children learn their native tongue, a process that produces functional skill in the spoken language without theoretical knowledge; develops familiarity with the phonetic characteristics of the language as well as its structure and vocabulary, is responsible for oral understanding, the capability for creative communi cation and for the identification of cultural values. Teaching and learning are viewed as activities that happen in a personal psychological plane.The acquisition approach praises the communicative act and develops self-confidence in the learner. A classic example of language acquisition involves adolescents and young adults who live abroad for a year in an exchange program, attaining near native fluency, while knowing little about the language in the majority of cases. They have a good pronunciation without a notion of phonology, don't know what the perfect tense is, modal or phrasal verbs are, but they intuitively recognize and know how to use all the structures. LANGUAGE LEARNINGThe concept of language learning is linked to the traditional approach to the study of languages and today is still generally practiced in high schools worldwide. Attention is focused on the language in its written form and the objective is for the student to understand the structure and rules of the lang uage through the application of intellect and logical deductive reasoning. The form is of greater importance than communication. Teaching and learning are technical and governed by a formal instructional plan with a predetermined syllabus.One studies the theory in the absence of the practical. One values the correct and represses the incorrect. There is little room for spontaneity. The teacher is an authority figure and the participation of the student is predominantly passive. In the teaching of English, for example, one studies the function of the interrogative and negative modes, irregular verbs, modals, etc. The student learns to construct sentences in the perfect tense, but only learns with difficulty when to use it.It's a progressive and cumulative process, normally tied to a preset syllabus that includes memorization of vocabulary and seeks to transmit to the student knowledge about the language, its functioning and grammatical structure with its irregularities, its contrasts with the student's native language, knowledge that one hopes will become the practical skills of understanding and speaking the language. This effort of accumulating knowledge becomes frustrating because of the lack of familiarity with the language. Innumerable graduates with arts degrees in English are classic examples of language learning.They often are trained and theoretically able to teach a language that they can communicate in only with extreme difficulty. INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACQUISITION AND LEARNING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The clear understanding of the differences between acquisition and learning makes it possible to investigate their interrelationships as well as the implications for the teaching of languages. First, we ought to consider that languages, in general, are complex, arbitrary, irregular phenomena, full of ambiguities, in constant random and uncontrollable evolution.Therefore, the grammatical structure of a language can be too complex and abstract to be cate gorized and defined by rules. Even if some partial knowledge of the functioning of the language is reached, it is not easily transformed into communication skills. What happens in fact is a dependency predominantly opposite: to understand the functioning of a language as a system and to understand its irregularities is a function of familiarity with it. Rules and exercises only will make sense when we have already developed solid intuitive control of the language in its oral form, that is, when we have assimilated it.On the other hand, Krashen admits that the knowledge obtained through formal study (language learning) can serve to monitor speaking. Krashen, however, doesn't specify the language that would be the object of study, but he was probably using the study of Spanish as the basis for his inferences and conclusions because it is the dominant foreign language in the United States, and particularly in the state of California, where Professor Krashen lives and works.Therefore, i t is necessary to explore the degrees of irregularity and difficulty of the target language and how that affects Krashen's theory. THE DEGREE OF PHONETIC SIGNALING IN THE LANGUAGE AND THE INEFFICIENCY OF LEARNING: It's also easy to assess the degree of phonetic signalling of languages and understand the importance that that aspect has. If we analyse and compare Spanish and Portuguese with English, we conclude that there is a significant difference, being English considerably more economical and compact than the Romance languages.This means a greater difficulty in achieving oral proficiency in the target language when going from Portuguese or Spanish to English than going the opposite direction. It also means that more time needs to be devoted to the practice of the spoken language (especially listening) and less time spent on the study of text and grammatical items. |Let's-work. (2) |  (5) Va-mos-tra-ba-lhar. | |I-like-be-er. (4) |  (7) Eu-gos-to-de-cer-ve-ja. | |A-brick-house. (3) |  (8) U-ma-ca-sa-de-ti-jo-los. |Help-me-please. (3) |  (7) A-ju-de-me-por-fa-vor. | |How-old-are-you? (4) |  (7) Quan-tos-a-nos-vo-ce-tem? | |Where-is-the-bath-room? (5) |  (8) On-de-fi-ca-o-ba-nhei-ro? | |I-want-cof-fee-with-milk. (6) |  (8) Eu-que-ro-ca-fe-com-lei-te. | |Did-you-watch-that-mo-vie? (6) |(10) Vo-ce-as-sis-tiu-a-que-le-fil-me? |Third-world-coun-tries-are-             |(24) Os-pa-i-ses-do-ter-cei-ro-mun-do- es-tao- | |  fac-ing-e-co-no-mic-pro-blems. (13) |en-fren-tan-do-pro-ble-mas-e-co-no-mi-cos. | |TOTAL: 46 silabas |84 silabas | |35,3% |64,6% | ac-cess   /   a-ces-so |me-thod   /   me-to-do | |a-gri-cul-ture   /   a-gri-cul-tu-ra |mu-sic   /   mu-si-ca | |air-plane   /   a-vi-ao |na-ture   /   na-tu-re-za | |ca-len-dar   /   ca-len-da-rio |o-cean   /   o-ce-a-no | |cho-co-late   /   cho-co-la-te |po-li-tics   /   po-li-ti-ca | |ci-ty   /   ci-da-de |prin-ter   / m-pres-so-ra | |com-pu-te r   /   com-pu-ta-dor |pro-cess   /   pro-ces-so | |cre-a-tive   /   cri-a-ti-vo |pro-ject   /   pro-je-to | |de-part-ment   /   de-par-ta-men-to |psy-cho-lo-gy   /   psi-co-lo-gi-a | |dif-ference   /   di-fe-ren-ca |pu-blic   /   pu-bli-co | |gram-mar   /   gra-ma-ti-ca |qua-li-ty   /   qua-li-da-de | |im-por-tant   /   im-por-tan-te |stu-dent   /   es-tu-dan-te | |in-tel-li-gent   /   in-te-li-gen-te |te-le-phone   /   te-le-fo-ne | |ma-chine   /   ma-qui-na |trans-port   /   trans-por-te | |mo-dern   /   mo-der-no |ur-gent   /   ur-gen-te | WORD STRESSING:The unpredictability of word stressing in English and the absence of any indication of stress from spelling is another element to demonstrate that Krashen's arguments acquire even greater strength. There are many other points of contrast between English and Spanish that show the greater degree of irregularity and difficulty of English. The fact is that e ven with a target language with a large degree of regularity such as Spanish, the contribution of learning will only be effective and durable if the student simultaneously develops familiarity and skill with the language in natural environments. |(stress on the last syllable)   |hotel, control, police, improve, exchange, etc. only two-syllable | | |words) | |(stress on one before the last)   |video, English, important, united, revolution, etc. | |(stress on two before the last)   |excellent, hospital, government, photograph, photographer, etc. | |stress on three before the last |approximately, significantly, intelligible, objectionable, etc. | |double stress |approximation, refrigerator, characteristic, category, necessary, | |   |dictionary, fundamental, introductory, etc. | ———————– [pic]

Four characteristics of Biomedical model Essay

1) biologistic – reduces illness to natural to natural biological processes – seeks out a single, clearly identifiable pathogen – loses sight of the social context of the disease 2) mechanistic – insists on a conceptual separation of body and mind – conceives of the body as a machine made up of interrelated parts – disease is attributed to malfunctioning part that requires fixing – loses sight of the whole subject 3) scientistic – regards the scientific method as providing the only means by which to access valid knowledge. – seeks to identify strict scientific principles or laws and hones in what can be directly observed and measured – loses sight of the meanings and feeling associated with the experience of disease 4) emphasis – seeks to care rather than prevent disease, and is therefore largely reactive in nature Five characteristics of Individualist Health Promotion (IHP) 1) is located at the conservative end of public health continuum – that is, it does not require or advocate significant structural change in society 2) focuses on behavioural patterns and lifestyle factors in order to explain the origins of ill health – that is, it looks upstream form biology, regarding diseases as the end product of the way in which people to lead their lives. Ultimately, it is consistent with a psychological orientation 3) aims to educate individuals about the risk factors associated with particular lifestyle choices; with a view to promoting healthy behavioural changes (eg. the ‘smoking kills’ campaign 4) encourage individuals to take responsibility for their health, that is , they are expected to take on board the information provided by health experts, and to use this to monitor numerous lifestyle factors, including diet, alcohol consumption, smoking habits, exercise participation, stress level etc. this process involves ‘internalising the gaze’ of a range of health expert, and it renders more and more area of life ‘relevant’ to one’s health status 5) has a proactive preventative ( is opposed to reactive curative emphasis, whereby it seeks to prevent diseases from occurring by positively influencing health – related behaviours Social Medicine – The ‘radical’ end of the public health continuum – focuses on life chances and social structure – advocates the structural transformation of society – preventative emphasis 1) not only is health influenced by behavioural and lifestyle factors that exist ‘upstream’ from biology, it is also profoundly shaped y board social processes that occur even further ‘upstream’ , and which serve to structure behavioural and lifestyle ‘choices’ in the first place. 2) there is a clear social gradient in the distribution of most diseases , that is, as a general rule, the higher the location in the social hierarchy, the lower the incidence of disease, and vice versa 3) with heart disease, the standard biological predictors (cholesterol levels, blood pressure) and behavioural predictors (smoking, poor diet) account for only one-quarter to one-third of the identifiable social gradient. 4) To adequately explain the social gradient of disease, one must take into account the fundamental, although often subtle, social determinants of ill health. 5) It is not only absolute poverty that causes ill health, but also: – relative inequality (or one’s place in the social hierarch) – the amount of power and control one exercise; at work, and in life more generally – one’s degree of integration into a supportive social network 6) in the workplace and beyond, control over one’s destiny, is a pivotal factor in determining an individual’s health prospects and such control is socially mediated. Health Unhealthy Cause, Responsibility Biomedical model Fortunate Unfortunate No individual and social group is responsible – ill health is a product of nature or biology and is ultimately a matter of fate Individual health promotion Responsible Irresponsible The individual is responsible – ill health is the outcome of unhealthy behaviours and unwise lifestyle choice Social medicine Social Advantage Social Disadvantaged Social group who foster, and profit from, inequality are responsible, ill- health is the product of social organisation